The Appeal of Alfred Adler’s Theory and Philosophy: Understanding Classical Adlerian Practitioners’ Theoretical Orientation Development
The Appeal of Alfred Adler’s Theory and Philosophy: Understanding Classical Adlerian Practitioners’ Theoretical Orientation Development
The Journal of Individual Psychology, Vol. 81, No. 4, Winter 2025
The importance and value of theories in helping practitioners work with clients cannot be overstated. This study used an interpretative phenomenological analysis approach to understand the lived theoretical orientation development experiences of five self-identified classical Adlerian practitioners. Findings indicated two patterns for learning theory in counseling and psychotherapy that emerged across the participants: (a) the appeal of Adler’s theory and philosophy and (b) Adler’s original writings. Findings provide insights into the process of developing a theoretical orientation to counseling and psychotherapy among Adlerian practitioners. Recommendations for future research are offered.
Keywords: theoretical orientation development, Adlerian psychology, classical Adlerian depth psychotherapy, practitioner growth
PRACTITIONER EDUCATORS AND SUPERVISORS ARE CHARGED WITH THE responsibility of guiding counselors-in-training toward the identification and development of a personal theory of counseling and psychotherapy that serves to guide their clinical work (Werries, 2015). Theoretical orientation is an essential building block for educating, training, and supervising counselors and psychotherapists. Programs accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counselor Education and Related Programs (CACREP) emphasize standards pertinent to the teaching, application, and practice of theories. This is evidenced in the 23 references pertinent to theory in the 2024 CACREP Standards (CACREP, 2024), which underscores the importance and value of theories in the counseling and psychotherapy profession.
The term theoretical orientation refers to a conceptual framework that guides practitioners in conceptualizing clients, creating specific interventions, and evaluating the therapeutic process (Poznanski & McLennan, 1995). A solid theoretical orientation is foundational to counselors’ conceptualization and treatment of clients and their professional identity (Holm et al., 2018; Werries, 2015). A practitioner’s theoretical orientation provides direction for working with clients; practitioners without a theoretical orientation risk ineffective and unethical client intervention (Fall et al., 2010; Holm et al., 2018).
The literature on the development of theoretical orientation suggests that a practitioner’s choice of a theoretical orientation to practice results from a complex interaction of influences instead of simple exposure to a particular theoretical orientation during training via modeling or other processes (Halbur & Halbur, 2019; Poznanski & McLennan, 2003). Factors influencing the choice of a particular theory may be roughly categorized as personal and professional variables. Scholars find that personal variables (e.g., personality, philosophical beliefs and values, epistemological development) play roles in choosing which counseling and psychotherapy theory to adhere to (Bitar et al., 2007; Poznanski & McLennan, 2003; Watson & Super, 2020). Moreover, scholars reveal that professional variables (e.g., supervision, clinical experience, clinical training, professional efficacy) contribute to practitioners’ theoretical orientation decision-making (Demir & Gazioğlu, 2017; Mason, 2012; Messina et al., 2019). Despite the effect of psychological theory on the practice of counseling and psychotherapy, relatively few studies have examined aspects of the theoretical orientation development process.
Individual Psychology as a theory of counseling and psychotherapy is situated at the margin of these mental health fields. Like other schools of counseling and psychotherapy, Individual Psychology has many notable expositors. Another term that is almost equivalent to Individual Psychology is Adlerian psychology, which is an inclusive term that embraces theories and techniques developed by Adler’s associates and followers in addition to Adler’s individual psychology. Among self-identified Adlerian practitioners who regard Individual Psychology or Adlerian psychology as their theoretical orientation for counseling and psychotherapy, there are subdivisions. Examples of the diverse branches of Adlerian psychology are the classical Adlerian, Dreikursian Adlerian, neoAdlerian, and psychoanalytic Adlerian. Some self-identified Adlerian practitioners use Adler or his associates’ work as theoretical frameworks but do not subscribe to a specific branch of Adlerian psychology.
As a branch of Adlerian psychology, the classical Adlerian approach is rarely presented in counseling and psychotherapy textbooks (Stein, 2013). The classical Adlerian approach features a 12stage depth psychotherapy model that targets the dissolving of the style of life and fictional final goal and paves the way for the emergence of the self, other, and task actualization, similarly described by Abraham Maslow (1954; Mansager & Bluvshtein, 2017; Stein, 2020). The therapeutic technique is creative and Socratic (Stein, 2020). Practitioners pursue learning the classical Adlerian approach at the Classical Adlerian Depth Psychotherapy Institute (CADPI), which offers distant postgraduate training in Classical Adlerian Depth Psychotherapy (CADP).
Although scholars have lauded the value of the classical Adlerian approach, the experience of practitioners who adhere to the approach is rarely studied. Qu and Seward (2024) conducted a phenomenological study investigating two classical Adlerian practitioners’ experiences of professional identity development. Findings suggest that theoretical orientation was a primary factor in developing classical Adlerian practitioners’ professional identity. The authors also found that theoretical orientation was more than a conceptual psychological framework for counseling and psychotherapy for classical Adlerian practitioners. Instead, it functioned as a philosophy of living, and participants believed that theoretical orientation should be compatible with practitioners’ personal values.
Empirical studies have yet to further investigate the process and elements of developing a theoretical orientation among classical Adlerian practitioners. Hence, this research aims to explore further how practitioners navigate an Adlerian theoretical learning and develop an Adlerian theoretical orientation to counseling and psychotherapy. The research question for this study is as follows: What are the lived experiences of developing a theoretical orientation among classical Adlerian practitioners?
METHOD
Research Paradigms and Tradition
The authors ascribed to principles of constructivism and interpretivism as the research paradigms for the framework and chose an interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA; Smith et al., 2022) research design for this study. IPA is aimed at understanding a phenomenon on its own terms through the perspective of individuals who have lived it (Smith et al., 2022). Rooted in phenomenology, hermeneutics, and ideography, IPA was deemed suitable for studying the experience of classical Adlerian practitioners developing a theoretical orientation. Specifically, we focused on the idiosyncratic experiences of each participant, seeking to uncover their meaning-making accounts and to identify any patterns of meaning (Smith et al., 2022) shared by the classical Adlerian practitioners.
Researcher Reflexivity
The researchers included one female doctoral counselor education student (at the time of data collection and analysis) and one male counselor educator with experience in teaching Adlerian psychology at master’s and doctoral levels, publishing on Adlerian psychology, and conducting qualitative research. The authors were affiliated with a CACREPaccredited counselor education training program in the North Atlantic region (NARACES) of the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES).
Consistent with recommendations from qualitative researchers and critical scholars (Hays & Singh, 2023; Smith & Luke, 2021; Smith et al., 2022), we actively reflected on the research topic, methodology, and processes. More specifically, we visited researcher reflexivity before conducting research and revisited it throughout the research process. We reflected on our interest in the topic of inquiry, researcher roles, and the perspectives we each brought to the experiences with theoretical orientation development, Adlerian psychology, and the classical Adlerian approach. For instance, the first author follows an Adlerian approach, and the second author follows a multicultural and social justice approach to counseling and psychotherapy. Both of us noted shared beliefs related to the adopted methodology. First, we believed in studying a small group (i.e., practitioners who follow the classical Adlerian branch of Adlerian psychology) of experiences of developing a theoretical orientation to counseling and psychotherapy. Second, we believed in putting the persons at the forefront of the phenomenon under study. Third, we valued detailed analysis of experience from a small sample. Given our different levels of previous research experiences utilizing IPA or similar methods, we acknowledged how our experiences could influence our approaches and interpretations; hence, we engaged in trustworthiness strategies to mitigate that.
Participants
After receiving IRB approval, we started the recruitment process. Using purposive sampling, we solicited participants from CADPI, the only institute providing training for the classical Adlerian approach in the United States. Recruitment involved potential participants responding to an email informing them about the study (e.g., purpose, participation criteria, potential risks and benefits). Five self-identified classical Adlerian practitioners consented to participate in this study. To maintain participant confidentiality, given the concern expressed by participants about the small group of classical Adlerian practitioners, only participant characteristics relevant to the inclusion criteria were disclosed in relation to reporting findings. All participants had completed or were in the process of completing the CADP training when this study took place. All participants self-identified as mentees, and three self-identified as mentors in the training. Four participants had completed at least a master’s degree in counseling, and one in clinical psychology. All participants had practiced counseling or psychotherapy in the previous 5 years.
Data Collection
Five participants completed a web-based demographic questionnaire and took part in two rounds of web-based, semi-structured, one-on-one interviews. The first author conducted interviews, recorded in visual and audio formats, and transcribed verbatim. Participants were invited to describe their experiences in the first individual interview—for example, for which reasons did you choose the classical Adlerian approach as your theoretical orientation? Follow-up and clarifying questions were asked in the first and second interviews—for instance, can you tell me more?
Data Analysis
We followed Smith et al.’s (2022) seven steps for analyzing participants’ descriptions of their experiences. We started with data from one participant and immersed ourselves in the data by reading and rereading the transcripts. Second, we engaged in exploratory noting by examining semantic content and language use while we maintained an open mind and noted anything of interest in the transcripts that were member-checked by participants. We utilized descriptive, linguistic, and conceptual comments as analytic tools to explore data with a clear phenomenological focus on an interpretative level. Third, we developed experiential statements from the exploratory notes as we engaged in a synergistic process of description and interpretation. Fourth, we searched for connections across experiential statements. Fifth, we named the personal experiential themes and consolidated and organized them in a table. Sixth, we continued the individual analysis of other cases. Seventh, we worked with personal experiential themes to develop group experiential themes across cases.
Trustworthiness
We implemented various measures to ensure our research was dependable, consistent, and aligned with our research design. To bracket personal and cultural perspectives, we used reflective journaling to document thoughts regarding the research process (Hays & Singh, 2023). Additionally, we conducted member checking by asking the participants to review their interview transcripts and preliminary findings and provide feedback (Hays & Singh, 2023). We used direct quotes from the participants and detailed descriptions to explain our findings thoroughly. Moreover, we enlisted the help of an independent auditor, a doctoral candidate in counselor education with expertise in qualitative research, to review our work (Smith et al., 2022). This individual had no personal stake in the study and was responsible for ensuring that our research was meticulous, rigorous, and free from conflicting evidence.
FINDINGS
This study explored the lived experiences of developing a theoretical orientation to counseling and psychotherapy among classical Adlerian practitioners. Two group experiential themes, along with subthemes, emerged from this IPA study: (a) the appeal of Adler’s theory and philosophy and (b) the significance of Adler’s original writings. The participants described idiographic reasons for choosing Adlerian as a theoretical orientation to counseling and psychotherapy. In discussing learning and becoming an Adlerian practitioner, participants emphasized the significance of reading Alfred Adler’s original writings and the related challenges. The following space presents the findings of the two group experiential themes supported by direct quotes from five participants. The italics in the direct quotes indicate linguistic emphasis from the participants.
The Appeal of Adler’s Theory and Philosophy
The first group experiential theme is the appeal of Adler’s theory and philosophy. The five participants, self-identified as classical Adlerian practitioners, chose Alfred Adler’s theory and philosophy as their theoretical orientation to counseling and psychotherapy. Adler’s theory and philosophy were appealing to participants for many reasons. Two commonly shared reasons resonating among participants included Adler’s theoretical depth and way of life. Participants firmly believed that Adler’s theory depicted a deep understanding of human nature and a helpful healing method for counseling and psychotherapy. In addition to its theoretical depth, Adler’s theory was equivalent to a philosophy of living for participants who valued certain qualities, such as humanity, cooperation, and applicability. Stemming from the previous two reasons, the third reason that Adler’s theory and philosophy were attractive was the confidence and humanity that participants received from gaining a solid grasp of human nature, personality development, and therapeutic change. Such confidence and humanity allowed classical Adlerian practitioners to help their clients humanely and deeply. The following sections present the three subthemes.
Theoretical Depth
The participants pointed out the theoretical depth of Alfred Adler’s theory, which gave them a deep understanding of human nature and a helpful healing method for counseling and psychotherapy. For instance, Participant 5 said of Adler’s theory, “It gave me a lot more understanding of the different ways people get the way they are, how they evolve as people. So I felt it was a real deep orientation to psychology.” Participant 4 remarked on specific theoretical constructs to illustrate how Adler’s theory could help practitioners understand one’s personality:
I believe Adler was on to something very fundamental in our human makeup with his law of movement—from minus to plus, from inferiority to mastery. He offered a way to help people get more or less to the core of their personality.
More than gaining a fundamental grasp of human nature and personality development, the contributing participants considered Adler’s theoretical formulation a practical healing method. Both Participant 1 and Participant 2 elaborated on the extent to which Adler’s theory explained therapeutic phenomena and offered therapeutic directions. Participant 1 said:
And I was taken by surprise at how this model appears to be able to account for the phenomena that we see in counseling, and explain the problems that bring people to counseling and also offer an approach to helping the people that seek counseling.
To this end, Participant 2 agreed: “There’s little left unexplained in Adler’s theory. It gave me a container in which behaviors always make sense and that helped me be more helpful to my clients.” Participant 2 added, “What I have is a real understanding of the destination and a real understanding of why certain roads are getting nowhere.”
Moreover, participants mentioned several philosophical concepts and theoretical constructs, such as holism, phenomenology, and teleology, conducive to the depth of Adler’s understanding of human nature and therapeutic formulation. For instance, for Participant 2, “My CADP training took my understanding of teleology, phenomenology and Adler’s concept of the unity of personality to a new and deeper level.” Participant 4 related: “But [Adler] had the genius of putting together four primary issues that rose up through the evolution of psychopathology and became the healing method of psychotherapy. These base issues are holism, subjectivity, teleology (the goal orientation), and social interest.” Furthermore, participants found that Adler’s healing method embraced flexibility in that practitioners could tailor therapeutic interventions to clients in counseling and psychotherapy. For example, Participant 5 remarked, “And I loved, I loved, the way that it’s [Adler’s theory] so flexible. And that it allows you to really tailor interventions to a client.” Participant 4 further elaborated, “For me, it’s a matter of richness and fullness that Adler’s own formulation accommodates itself to counseling, which is more cognitive and more situational, but it also allows the depth and the feeling that allows for reconstruction of personalities.”
A Way of Life
While participants recognized the theoretical rigor of Adler’s theory, they also deemed it to be a way of life. In other words, Adler’s understanding of human nature and vision for humanity became a philosophy of living in participants’ eyes. Adler’s theory and philosophy held importance in the theoretical and philosophical aspects of participants’ lives; moreover, such importance mattered to participants professionally and personally. For instance, Participant 5 spoke to Adler’s theory and philosophy, which they believed presented a way of thinking about life and interacting with others as a human being. Participant 5 stated, “But personally, I felt it really is a way of life, a way of approaching and thinking about life, which carries through as, for me as an individual, as a human being, you know, how I interact with people.”
Regarding Adler’s vision for humanity and understanding of personality development, Participant 1 believed that Adler’s theory and philosophy were value driven. Participant 1 opined that individuals developed qualities such as courage, cooperation, and contribution through studying this theoretical orientation and being exposed to Adlerian practitioners who lived with those values. Participant 1 also considered the advocated values in this orientation as ideals for human beings to pursue. Participant 1 shared, “These [courage, cooperation, and contribution] are values that I have come to develop through the training, through my exposure to people who do hold these values and who do live according to these values.” Participant 1 emphasized:
And that [functioning well] was really attractive, not only personally but as a counseling student, a student in a counseling program, this notion that all of our clients have the capacity to function well, and that is essentially an ideal that we as counselors can help them strive towards.
Participant 3 also commented on the practical applicability of Adler’s theory and regarded it as an applied philosophy. They mentioned Rudolf Dreikurs, one of Adler’s well-known students and expositors, in the journey of learning Adlerian ideas. Participant 3 conveyed, “I think the practical application I’d experienced for years of Adlerian ideas through Dreikurs on everyday life opened my curiosity to go deeper with Adler’s original ideas.” Participant 3 added, “It [Adler’s theory] becomes very much an applied philosophy.”
Humane Practitioners Who Know Deeply to Help Deeply
Gaining a solid grasp of human nature, personality development, and therapeutic change gave participants the confidence and humanity to help their clients humanely and deeply. For instance, Participant 2 spoke about how their understanding of teleology, phenomenology, and holism—three concepts utilized in Adler’s therapeutic formulation—“represented a real paradigm shift” for them. For instance, Participant 2 believed that these concepts constituted a framework in which they could conceptualize client manifestations through a holistic lens, and this framework allowed for a deep self-understanding and a striving for values such as cooperation and courage. Participant 2 said, “Because if I can find the line and help my client find the line amongst all these things, then we are working together toward their deeper self-understanding, toward their appetite for cooperation and their courage to see and live clearly.”
Similarly, with a robust understanding of humanity, Participant 5 believed in modeling it in therapeutic relationships as a human being and encouraging clients to become themselves with their uniqueness. They opined that such clinical practices humanized the therapeutic process. Participant 5 narrated:
And it’s such a way of humanizing the process of therapy. And I was trained in humanistic style therapies, but to go this deep with it allows me to feel “it’s okay to be just yourself,” which is what you’re really trying to help a client become themselves, whatever their unique features are they bring to the world.
In this vein, a clear understanding of human nature and therapeutic change, which embraced values such as humanity, cooperation, and courage, allowed participants as practitioners to engage in deep therapeutic work with their clients. Equally, this ability gave participants confidence in their clinical practice. This was illustrated in Participant 2’s description: “I understand the destination and I am free to explore many routes to arriving there.”
The Significance of Adler’s Original Writings
The second group experiential theme concerns the significance of Alfred Adler’s original writings. When reflecting on their experiences of learning Adler’s theory and philosophy through CADP training and becoming Adlerian practitioners, participants emphasized the importance of reading Adler’s original writings. In participants’ experience, reading Adler’s seminal works affected the awareness of theoretical knowledge, the development of Adlerian identity, and the experience of learning Adler’s theory. Meanwhile, participants uncovered the challenges with reading Adler’s writings, which concerned density, complexity, and a lack of writing on therapeutic relationships. The following sections present the two subthemes.
Importance of Reading Adler
The importance of reading Adler’s original works was collectively recognized, but each classical Adlerian practitioner described it differently. For instance, Participant 1 emphasized such a reading and its implications for individuals who identified as Adlerians. Participant 1 asserted, “Professionally, I think it is really important to be able to read Adler’s original works, to see what Adler had to say.” To Participant 1, knowing Adler’s primary sources held scholarly importance. Participant 1 said, “I think for me, as an Adlerian if you want to cite anything, it’s important to know whether Adler said it or didn’t say it or whether somebody else did it.” Participant 1 argued, “I think if you’re going to identify yourself as Adlerian, it’s important to know what Adler said, rather than identifying as Adlerian through other people who identify as Adlerian, and maybe never having consulted Adler’s original works.”
In addition, some participants acknowledged their limited understanding of Adler’s theory and philosophy before having studied Adler’s original works. Participant 4 said: “But the more I read the books that [a classical Adlerian] had sent me, the more I actually understood how much I didn’t know and all that I wasn’t aware of.” Similarly, reflecting on their experience learning Adlerian theories and developing an Adlerian counselor identity during and after a master’s degree in counseling, Participant 2 noted that Adler’s original writings, which they accessed through the CADP training, provided a deep and scholarly understanding. They also commented on a deep personal connection with Adler’s writings:
Though I might have called myself an “Adlerian” counselor at the time of my master’s degree, this level of theoretical understanding was something strikingly different from everything else I knew. It struck me as truth that I recognized deep within my person.
Challenges in Writing and Reading
Despite the importance of reading primary works, participants identified challenges with Adler’s writings and reading them. As one example, Participant 5 acknowledged the challenging nature of reading Adler’s original writings. They mentioned, “Reading the original words was really a challenge.” Similarly, Participant 2 spoke about the density and complexity of Adler’s translated writing. Participant 2 noted, “Adler’s translated writing is often very dense and so complex.” Another example was the lack of writing on therapeutic relationships from Adler, according to Participant 3: “Of course, this is my own experience, but Adler doesn’t write very much about how to be in a therapeutic relationship.” Participant 3 further explained:
Adler taught his theory and worked with people from his theoretical understanding, but very little is written about the therapeutic relationship from Adler’s understanding—he seemed to have a natural compassion and interest in his patients, but he did not focus on that in his writings.
DISCUSSION
This IPA study explored five classical Adlerian practitioners’ experiences of developing a theoretical orientation to counseling and psychotherapy. As a theoretical orientation, Alfred Adler’s theory and philosophy appealed to classical Adlerian practitioners for various reasons. The participants’ descriptions support certain aspects of theoretical orientation development depicted in the literature. Their experiences also add new dimensions not found in the literature. These voices offer new insights into theoretical orientation development and the possible influences for classical Adlerian practitioners’ adherence.
A Desire for a Deep Understanding of Human Nature and Therapeutic Change
For the classical Adlerian practitioners in this study, a common reason for choosing to learn an Adlerian orientation and pursuing CADP training was a strong desire to gain an in-depth theoretical understanding of human nature and therapeutic change, which participants believed that Adler’s Individual Psychology and CADP training satisfied. This finding aligns with the idea that theoretical interests serve as motivations in undertaking psychotherapy training, as has been reported in the literature (Messina et al., 2019). Although affirming a practitioner’s theoretical interest and personal curiosity (Norcross & Prochaska, 1983) as factors influencing the selection of theoretical orientation and the pursuit of psychotherapy training in that theoretical orientation, this study also demonstrates how these factors have been influential and how Adler’s Individual Psychology satisfies classical Adlerian practitioners’ desires for a deep understanding of human nature. Therefore, the findings illuminate aspects of the process that have not previously been examined empirically in the counseling and psychotherapy field as well as in the circle of Adlerian psychology.
A Practical Healing Method for Counseling and Psychotherapy
The classical Adlerian practitioners in this study were attracted to Individual Psychology’s practical healing method of counseling and psychotherapy. Classical Adlerian practitioners believed this theoretical orientation offered them a therapeutic approach to helping clients by accounting for clinical phenomena in counseling and psychotherapy. With a deep understanding of human nature and therapeutic change, classical Adlerian practitioners believed they could help clients understand their personalities and struggles and rework them to become the people they hoped to be. These classical Adlerian practitioners’ experiences of Individual Psychology as a theoretical orientation sync the conceptualization of theoretical orientation that is “a theory-based framework for (a) generating hypotheses about a client’s experience and behavior,
(b) formulating a rationale for specific treatment interventions, and
(c) evaluating the ongoing therapeutic process” (Poznanski & McLennan, 1995, p. 412). In other words, one interpretation of the findings indicates the congruence between the operational definition and participants’ understanding of the theoretical orientation.
Moreover, participants believed that Individual Psychology depicted a holistic understanding of human nature and personality development. In addition, the participants posited that this theoretical orientation explained therapeutic phenomena and offered therapeutic directions. Building on previous findings from Qu and Seward (2024), our findings speak to various components of developing a solid theoretical orientation and reveal the practical applicability of Adler’s theory that classical Adlerian practitioners experience by using this orientation to decipher clients’ manifestations, including behaviors, thoughts, and feelings. This study supports the literature on the importance of developing a theoretical orientation practical for counseling and psychotherapy because a solid theoretical orientation is foundational to counselors’ conceptualization and treatment of clients (Fall et al., 2010; Holm et al., 2018; Qu & Seward, 2024; Werries, 2015).
Theoretical and Philosophical Underpinnings
An effective healing method connects to the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of Individual Psychology. The classical Adlerian practitioners in this study conveyed such a connection in recalling their Adlerian learning experiences. They described achieving greater comprehension of human nature and therapeutic change through theoretical and philosophical underpinnings, such as holism, phenomenology, and teleology embedded in Adler’s theory. It is worth noting, however, that participants did not describe their attraction to theoretical and philosophical underpinnings prior to reading Adler’s original writings and pursuing the CADP training. It is speculated that classical Adlerian practitioners might have acquired epistemological developments as they were learning Adler’s theory and philosophy. However, according to the experiences of classical Adlerian practitioners in this study, the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of a counseling and psychotherapy theory mattered to them, for they described the importance and richness of Adler’s understanding of human nature and therapeutic formulation on their theoretical learning and identity formation.
Commentaries on the philosophical assumptions of Individual Psychology exist. Individual Psychology is a theory of counseling and psychotherapy and a philosophy of living. Qu and Liu (2023) have written that Alfred Adler acknowledged individuals who had influenced his theoretical formation over the years of developing and refining his theory. The epistemological roots of individual psychology are found in, for example, the critical philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), the socialism of Karl Marx (1818–1883), the will to power of Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), the holism of Jan Smuts (1870–1950), the Socratic questioning of Socrates (470–399 BC), the feminism of Mathilde Vaerting (1884–1977), and the fictional finalism of Hans Vaihinger (1852–1933) (Adler, 1927/2002, 1956; Ellenberger, 1970; Qu & Liu, 2023; Watts, 2000). As such, Qu and Liu (2023) have suggested that the philosophical assumptions of individual psychology could be one of the many influences on why counselorsintraining and counselors would choose this theory as their theoretical orientation.
Despite speculation that theoretical and philosophical underpinnings are one reason classical Adlerian practitioners choose Individual Psychology as a theoretical orientation, the theoretical orientation development literature demonstrates that philosophical underpinnings of counseling and psychology theories influence counselors’ choices of theoretical orientation (Halbur & Halbur, 2019; Murdock et al., 1998). However, this study did not investigate when classical Adlerian practitioners become aware of and are influenced by the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings. This topic thus requires further exploration.
A Value-Driven Philosophy of Living
To the participants, Adler’s theory meant more than a theoretical orientation that held clinical importance. They deemed Adler’s theory a philosophical way of living or a valuedriven psychology. They also described its appeal because of the philosophical aspect of life embedded in the theory and the promoted values pertinent to human interaction, such as humanity and cooperation. In addition, the participants focused on developing qualities through the journeys of learning Adlerian theory and becoming Adlerian practitioners. Furthermore, participants claimed to strive to integrate Adler’s philosophy of life into their ways of living while encouraging clients to do the same.
The findings above provide supporting evidence that values and philosophy influence the selection of a theoretical orientation (Allen, 2015; Bitar et al., 2007; Qu & Seward, 2024; Watson & Super, 2020; Weber, 2020). Additionally, this study aligns with Qu and Seward’s (2024) assertion that classical Adlerian practitioners believe that theoretical orientation and personal values should be compatible. Although congruent with much of the literature, the current study includes the intention and action of integrating Adler’s philosophy of life into classical Adlerian practitioners’ ways of living. This finding expands on the values and philosophy categories that have not been previously described in detail.
Reading
The present study’s findings indicate that accessing Adler’s original writings and journal articles from a classical Adlerian perspective influences classical Adlerian practitioners’ selection of Individual Psychology and the pursuit of CADP training. The classical Adlerian practitioners in this study talked about how being introduced to those readings ignited their desire to learn more about Adler’s theory and to undertake CADP training. Participants articulated the importance of reading Adler’s original writings in learning Adler’s theory and philosophy through the CADP training and becoming Adlerian practitioners. They reflected that reading Adler’s original seminal works (2002–2006) affected their awareness of the availability and depth of Adler’s writings. In addition, reading Adler’s original works influenced their experiences of developing an Adlerian orientation and Adlerian identity.
It is worth noting that participants did not provide references during the interviews, but some participants mentioned in the final member checking process that they referred to The Collected Clinical Works of Alfred Adler (CCWAA; Adler, 2002–2006) series when they talked about reading Adler’s original works. Participants also distinguished Adler’s (2002–2006) original writings from his anthologies (e.g., Adler 1956, 1964). For CADPI (n.d.), the classical Adlerian training incorporates Adler’s original, seminal works, such as The Collected Clinical Works of Alfred Adler (CCWAA; Adler, 2002–2006), into educating and preparing practitioners. This description aligns with participants’ experience that Adler’s original writings constitute most of the reading materials.
Reading has been demonstrated in the literature as one factor influencing a practitioner’s theoretical identification and development (Fitzpatrick et al., 2010). The participants in Fitzpatrick et al.’s (2010) study shared that reading tends to be circumscribed by the counseling psychology curriculum. We agree and would add to those findings that there appears to be a connection between reading, curriculum design, and theoretical orientation selection and development for the classical Adlerian practitioners in this study.
IMPLICATIONS
The findings of this study have yielded valuable information for classical Adlerian practitioners, classical Adlerian training, and practitioner education and training. For practitioners who identify as classical Adlerian, one way of furthering their professional identity and theoretical orientation is to continue to master Alfred Adler’s stance on human nature, personal development, and philosophy of living and to apply such comprehension to case conceptualization and treatment planning. Closely examining the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of Adler’s theory might refine classical Adlerian practitioners’ process of developing a theoretical orientation and professional identity. Additionally, the importance of reading Adler’s original writings is emphasized by classical Adlerian practitioners in this study, even though they note the complexity of Adler’s writings. Self-identified classical Adlerian practitioners should continue reading Adler’s original writings and discussing impressions and learnings with peers and mentors to digest learning materials and engage in meaning-making.
The participants of this study are self-identified classical Adlerian practitioners. The implications and suggestions here are pertinent primarily to the classical Adlerian community. However, potential implications and recommendations could be made to broader practitioner education. For instance, differentiated instruction on the depth of theoretical learning and application to counseling and psychotherapy is also likely to satisfy divergent degrees of theoretical interests among practitioners-in-training. Practitioner educators and supervisors should consider including original seminal works on theories to meet individuals’ desire for theoretical depth and incorporating learning materials with good readability to benefit individuals at a beginning level. Meanwhile, as salient as theoretical orientation can be to developing professional identity among practitioners-in-training, it is crucial to be mindful of how other factors, such as identities and populations, could intersect with this process.
Exploring counseling and psychotherapy theories and describing the rationale for selection and adherence should be encouraged among students and supervisees. Through experiential learning activities and assignments, practitioner educators and supervisors should aim to create an intentional sensemaking process for practitioners-in-training to analyze factors that may or may not influence their selection and adherence. Examples of influential factors can be provided, such as the compatibility between personal philosophy and the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of the desired or undesired theories. These examples serve a demonstrative instructional purpose; practitioner educators and supervisors should encourage answers that embrace meaning to students and supervisees.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
As qualitative researchers, our personal and cultural perspectives can influence our findings. To address this, we have used trustworthiness strategies to mitigate the influence our perspectives might have had on the interpretative process. Participants in our study expressed concerns about confidentiality within the small classical Adlerian community, so we have prioritized safeguarding their privacy by choosing not to disclose their demographics. We also recognize that including cultural variables, such as ethnicity/race and social and economic status, could add complexity to our analysis and provide additional layers of insight to our findings. In future studies, one way to mitigate this challenge could be to ask participants to reflect on the effects of their cultural being on learning theory. Given the high recognition of value and theory compatibility (Qu & Seward, 2024), future research could also examine the benefits of incorporating instructional activities that ask practitioners-in-training to reflect on the compatibility of personal values and counseling and psychotherapy theories.
CONCLUSION
Whether a practitioner identifies with a primary theoretical orientation or takes an integrative approach, theoretical orientation development is a process in which all mental health practitioners engage. With an IPA approach, this study has explored the lived experiences of classical Adlerian practitioners’ theoretical orientation development. The findings feature classical Adlerians’ strong desire for theoretical comprehension and therapeutic practicality in depth. Moreover, this study underscores the compatibility between personal values and a chosen theoretical orientation’s theoretical and philosophical underpinnings. Despite the challenges associated with Adler’s original writings translated into English, the classical Adlerian practitioners placed a high value on reading them to further theoretical learning.
REFERENCES
Adler, A. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler: A systemic presentation in selections from his writings (H. L. Ansbacher & R. R. Ansbacher, Eds.). Basic Books.
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Xiaoxuan Qu, PhD, NCC, is an assistant professor in counselor education at the University of New Mexico. Dr. Qu studies the phenomena of constructing and developing professional identity and theoretical orientation to counseling and psychotherapy among practitioners and practitioners-in-training. She also explores the mechanics of mentorship in practitioner education.
Derek X. Seward, PhD, LMHC, NCC, ACS, is an associate professor in the Counseling and Human Services Unit in the School of Education at Syracuse University. Dr. Seward’s scholarly interests focus primarily on the multicultural and social justice development of mental health professionals. He is a Licensed Mental Health Counselor in New York
This article is shared with the generous permission of its author, Xiaoxuan Qu, Ph.D., NCC.